Evidence-Based Teaching Ideas for Academic Equity

From Degrees of Difficulty: The Challenge of Equity in  College Teaching by David Trend, forthcoming from Worlding Book

In recent years, the premise of “evidence-based teaching” has emerged as a key strategy in addressing outcome disparities in higher education. Much like evidence-based practices in medicine and social science, this approach draws on empirical research to inform teaching methods, moving beyond practices based on personal experience or intuition. This shift represents a major change in how educators view the art of teaching itself, acknowledging that while intuition has value, it must be balanced with systematic investigation of what actually works in the classroom. The development of evidence-based teaching can be traced to the late 20th century, along with advances in cognitive science and educational psychology. As researchers gained new insights into adult learning and intellectual development, their findings found their way into the university classroom.

The earliest educational research came from simple comparative methods. Researchers typically would divide classes into control and experimental groups, with one cohort receiving standard instruction and the other a modified version. These “split-class” experiments provided the first rigorous evidence that teaching methods could affect learning outcomes significantly. While rudimentary, these early methods established the crucial principle that teaching effectiveness could be measured and improved through systematic study rather than innate talent alone. Educators also relied heavily on pre- and post-testing, administering assessments before and after interventions to measure knowledge gain. Though simple, this proved particularly good for seeing which teaching strategies led to lasting comprehension versus short-term memorization. Besides this, some faculty maintained teaching journals for documenting their own methods and student responses, which later would be shared with others. While lacking the sophistication of conventional educational studies, these varied methods laid the groundwork for an evidence-based teaching movement asserting that teaching effectiveness could be studied and improved.Another foundational approach involved classroom visitation. Rudimentary versions of this took the form of third-party observation of a class by an administrator or faculty colleague. This involved an observer watching a faculty member teach, taking notes on teaching methods and student engagement. After the observation, a document would be produced or a meeting scheduled to discuss what worked and what didn’t. A more formal version of classroom visitation entailed trained observers documenting participation and teaching according to standardized rubrics.  Combined with student performance data, these findings helped identify good teaching practices that might have otherwise gone unnoticed. Sometimes researchers also drew on student surveys and interviews to gather qualitative data or narrative feedback about learning experiences. Classroom observation remains widely used in K-12 schooling and community colleges, although there now is a growing trend in four-year degree programs to include peer observation as part of faculty development, particularly in institutions prioritizing teaching.

Aside from the informational value research findings, today’s evidence-based teaching research plays an increasingly important role in institutional change  –– especially at a time when the efficacy and purpose of college teaching is being questioned.  Not only can research document teaching quality, but it can also help convince resistant faculty to reassess what they do in the classroom. The availability of empirical studies also has gone a long way in helping faculty justify progressive pedagogies, especially in fields where facts and data play a bigger role. Put another way, these findings now allow faculty considering course changes to answer questions such as: Which techniques are proven to promote learning in specific disciplines? How can we accurately assess student understanding? What does research tell us about information retention and conceptual understanding in college learners?

Adopting evidence-based teaching can help in addressing variable student needs, often providing frameworks for faculty to adjust their methods across disciplines and learning contexts, including online and hybrid formats. At the same time, implementing evidence-based teaching takes careful attention to institutional cultures. It’s also worth stating that evidence-based teaching does not suggest abandoning all traditional methods. After all, not every discipline or knowledge form lends itself to empiricism.  Rather it represents yet another resource in a faculty member’s instructional toolbox. Moreover, the continuous flow of new educational research may imply that all faculty must update their practices, which, while useful, can overburden part-time or contingent faculty.

That said, the influence of evidence-based teaching increasingly is reaching beyond classrooms. As campuses struggle to keep up with the changing needs of today’s students, many universities now include research-informed teaching practices in their strategic plans and accreditation processes. Put in these terms, evidence-based teaching provides an important framework for universities in achieving classroom equity. At the core of this activity lie several social science theories offering psychological perspectives on learning in diverse student contexts.

  • Constructivism, as developed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, posits that knowledge is actively constructed through experiences and interactions with the world. [i] This theory emphasizes hands-on learning, problem-solving, and collaborative activities for creating engaging environments for students from varying backgrounds. By recognizing that learners bring their experiences and cultural contexts to the classroom, constructivism provides a framework for more culturally responsive teaching practices.
  • Behaviorism espoused by B.F. Skinner and John Watson says that behavior is shaped by what happens in a person’s environment –– rewards, punishments, and other outside influences.[ii] . Techniques such as reinforcement, modeling, and token economies offer structured approaches to support students who may have difficulties in less organized settings. This works well in teaching basic skills and creating consistent, supportive learning environments structured to help in maintaining focus or attention.
  • Cognitivism, advanced by Jerome Bruner and Robert Gagné, delves into how learning is encoded and retrieved.[iii] This theory informs instructional design for diverse learning needs by recognizing that not all students process information in the same way. By understanding cognitive processes, faculty can design more effective learning experiences by catering to a wide range of cognitive styles and abilities.
  • Social learning, as developed by Albert Bandura, examines interpersonal and cultural dynamics in the classroom, where observation, imitation, and modeling play crucial roles.[iv] By fostering situations where students learn from each other, educators can create more inclusive classrooms and provide relevant examples of success. This can be particularly powerful in challenging stereotypes and broadening learners’ perceptions of what they can achieve.
  • Humanism, associated with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focuses on the whole person and the development of human potential.[v] Humanism favors student-centered learning, self-actualization, and personal growth, and works well in creating more equitable classrooms. By recognizing every learner’s worth and potential, humanistic approaches can help students feel valued and motivated.

These theories collectively create a practical “toolbox” of strategies for ensuring that all learners can succeed regardless of their starting point. Here are a few more evidence-based concepts that have been shown to enhance learning.

  • Active learning engages students in activities requiring reflection and knowledge application, such as discussing, debating, and collaborating in the classroom. This method has been proven to produce clear improvements in student performance, especially in fields where traditional lecture-based methods fail to engage all learners. Comparative research with learning cohorts studying the same material has shown that students in active learning environments achieve higher grades than peers in traditional lecture-based sections.[vi]
  • Scaffolding offers temporary support to help students reach goals they might not achieve on their own, gradually removing these supports as learners gain confidence and competence. Such a pedagogical structure especially can be effective in helping students build foundational skills to tackle more challenging tasks over time.
  • Differentiated instruction tailors teaching strategies to meet varied needs, accommodating different learning styles and abilities to reduce educational disparities. By recognizing that standardized methods do not work for everyone, this approach features more personalized learning experiences. This principle also informs Individual Learning Plans (IEPs).
  • Collaborative learning encourages students to work together, solving problems and completing tasks in ways that build on each other’s strengths. This can improve critical thinking skills and encourage collective sensibilities and teamwork, breaking down social barriers and promoting cross-cultural understanding.
  • Feedback guides learners by helping them understand their progress and areas for improvement. Timely and actionable feedback has been shown to improve student outcomes by clarifying expectations and achievement strategies. This can be particularly empowering for learners previously left out or unsupported in prior schooling.
  • Formative assessments are a specific form of feedback. Activities like polls, Clicker questions, or low value quizzes can help students and instructors identify areas for improvement and ensure all learners can keep pace with the curriculum. This continuous feedback loop can be crucial in addressing learning needs in the early weeks of a course.
  • Metacognitive strategies help students become aware of their learning processes, while also building a sense of autonomy. Sharing instructional intent and educational principles with students helps engender awareness of the learning process while empowering them to take control and become more self-directed. This skill set is invaluable for all students but can be particularly transformative for those who have faced systemic barriers.
  • Culturally responsive teaching recognizes and incorporates students’ cultural identities and heritage, making learning more relevant and accessible. This can help learners feel seen and valued while bringing fresh perspectives into the classroom. By validating and building on learners’ lived experiences, culturally responsive teaching can help bridge the gap between home and school, promoting greater engagement.
  • Constructive alignment ensures that learning objectives, activities, and assessments are coherently aligned. This is important in ensuring that all aspects of the educational process work together to achieve desired outcomes.

[i] Jean Piaget and Barbel Inhelder, The Psychology of the Child (New York: Basic Books, 1969): Lev Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard 1978).

[ii] BF. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (New York: Macmillan, 1953); John B. Watson, “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It ” Psychological Review, 20 no. (1913):158-177,   https://www.yorku.ca/pclassic/Watson/views.htm

[iii] Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1960): Robert M. Gagné, The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1985).

[iv] Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory  (New York: Prentice Hall, 1977).

[v] Carl Rogers, Freedom to Learn (New York: Charles Merrill, 1969); Abraham Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 50, no. 4 (1943): 370-396.

[vi] “Impact of Active Learning Strategies on Student Performance,” Journal of Educational Technology (2021)  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED614302.pdf

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